v “The life which is unexamined is not worth living”. — Apology
* ~; T( T& n0 N9 I v The Socratic method is a process in which one keeps asking questions and then dissecting the answers to bring out the inadequacies and inconsistencies in the beliefs of the interlocutors. This method Socrates applied to the examination of the key moral concepts at the time, i.e. the virtues of piety, wisdom, temperance, courage, and justice.
' j0 p$ m l1 B& k) W: q$ X Effect on western thought
" h" A) }2 h9 q( d/ [, N' o v Pedagogically(教育学的), this classic method of teaching tend to create autonomous thinkers, as the reasoning process is considered more important than facts, and students are encouraged to reason rather than appeal to authority. We still remember what Plato said: P4 B4 e6 o% D" f
v “I love my mento(门特(良师益友), 贤明的顾问, 导师), but I love truth more.”$ B) W3 o2 s0 }4 o( d' m% h& N
Plato’s Idealism: ★ ★ ★唯心主义
O1 \' z9 a& H; x* z* Y 柏拉图:希腊哲学家,苏格拉底的信徒,他创办了学园(公元前386年),在这里他教书写作度过他余生的大部分时间柏拉图以戏剧对话的形式表述了他的思想,如在理想国 中
9 Z: F: `2 s/ |% @) D9 s v Idealism: The basis of Plato's philosophy is his theory of Ideas, or Forms. Plato's metaphysics divides the world into two distinct aspects: the intelligible world of "forms" and the perceptual world we see around us. He saw the perceptual things as imperfect copies of the intelligible forms, hence, not completely real., x W# N' w# R( A
v In other words, ontologically trees, stones, human bodies, and other objects that can be known through the senses are not real, while the forms of trees, stones, human bodies, and other objects are unchangeable and perfect.! t5 D* Y. z! p* Y5 ~- h; s% o; U0 I, S
v In an epistemological sense, beliefs derived from experience of sense objects are vague and unreliable, whereas the principles of mathematics and philosophy, discovered by inner, rationalistic meditation on the Forms or Ideas, constitute the only knowledge worthy of the name.
! N$ m7 B: f5 G9 ~ The Academy he established is the first school in the world.
9 m% `" u6 X* p+ b( o Aristotle (384-322 BC): 27
; o9 P, t% ^" v 亚里士多德:希腊哲学家。柏拉图的学生,亚历山大大帝的教师,他的着述论及逻辑学,形而上学,伦理学,自然科学,政治学和诗学,对西方思想产生了深远影响,在其哲学体系里,理论服从实地观察和逻辑,以三段论为基础,基本上是理性研究的理论方法
* P( T- ]( l8 k% @0 y9 H$ O tutor of Alexander the Great & founder of the Lyceum which remained for centuries one of the great centers of learning in Greece ★
; J, K R1 [$ o& Q, c3 ] Differences between Plato and Aristotle in their philosophical ideas ★ ★ ★
! |6 s4 T& ~8 y8 M v 1. In a certain sense, Aristotle's method is both inductive and deductive, while Plato's is essentially deductive:
. v8 C2 ^+ E J) Y! W& m! B v i. Unlike Plato, Aristotle preferred to establish the ultimate basis of things inductively—from particular facts to a universal conclusion, or from effects to causes. In other words, Aristotle emphasizes direct observation of nature and insists that theory should follow fact. This is different from Plato’s reliance on subjective thinking. U& m( ?* Z4 c4 F
Inductive(归纳的)reasoning: ★ ★ ★
( E8 g0 E# A: A8 w# b5 l; B v Induction, sometimes called inductive logic(归纳逻辑), is the process of reasoning in which the conclusion of an argument is very likely to be true, but not certain, given the premises. It is always based on limited observations of particular tokens(标志)or recurring phenomenal patterns. For example:
/ f* S! Y6 |0 T8 z+ @/ { v This swan is white.
8 B; k% ~8 t: L. i( M A v A billiard ball moves when struck with a cue.
) V9 f' e+ b$ {6 V v to infer general propositions such as:" ]3 E2 o8 Z2 {1 B! G
v All swans are white.
( b+ H3 Z2 [, k9 k v For every action, there is an equal and opposite re-action
& j, q& s9 O+ F0 G Deductive reasoning: syllogism ★ ★ ★[逻]三段论法
% N6 P. T( s: Q, Z1 ^ |5 T: M. e7 A 【逻辑学】 三段论:一种演绎推理形式,包括大前提、小前提和结论;如,所有的人都会死, 是大前提 我是一个人, 是小前提 因此,我会死 是结论$ v# j- w0 X& l) W# R
v ii. In founding the science of logic Aristotle developed the theory of deductive inference, represented by the syllogism, a deductive argument having two premises and a conclusion.9 |4 F6 Y# C7 @6 I" N$ T. ]7 f
v →Human is mortal;
. _9 _: m- l! y$ M9 G# } v → Socrates is human;6 ?$ u- m+ I) h3 [$ i
v → Therefore, Socrates is mortal.
7 r% e6 B4 }% E2 D- U* G# d v → All apples are fruit.7 k$ O4 |* _' e( u+ O
v → All fruits grow on trees.. f4 d0 ]4 n5 Z
v → Therefore all apples grow on trees.
: m9 J# g: l0 K6 z3 H, T Another difference between Plato and Aristotle★ ★ ★ |