英语语言学笔记纲要（3）

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　　Chapter 3 Phonology
　　l        What is phonology?
# j3 v$ A/ v! A. K9 ?　　n        Phonology is the study of sound systems and patterns.
; t+ N$ W8 ]: O8 }9 b, f5 Q　　n        Phonology and phonetics are two studies different in perspectives, which are concerned with the study of speech sounds.
　　n        Phonology focuses on three fundamental questions.
  {5 K0 g, h; I0 g　　u      What sounds make up the list of sounds that can distinguish meaning in a particular language?
) }, t+ s6 u! v, q) q6 I　　u      What sounds vary in what ways in what context?
8 j& L2 a' t; s0 d. p　　u      What sounds can appear together in a sequence in a particular language?
$ [  E& j& Z4 U& h" K/ M! t' ]4 x  F/ s　　l        Phonemes and allophones
4 x) N2 l2 Y6 U  ~4 x3 u% m* m' N0 K　　n        A phoneme is a distinctive, abstract sound unit with a distinctive feature.
8 N+ \% n' b) B, j- b4 v  \　　n        The variants of a phoneme are termed allophones.
: Z; u: @# ?9 c: L& @　　n        We use allophones to realize phonemes.
" z- d6 ~% W5 o2 g0 ?% K　　l        Discovering phonemes
' a/ r! P7 R2 t' A' H8 H4 {; b$ |' s　　n        Contrastive distribution – phonemes
" I, X% F, u  O( a　　u      If sounds appear in the same environment, they are said to be in contrastive distribution.
2 n% [# ]* o2 N# G, `4 D# \　　u      Typical contrastive distribution of sounds is found in minimal pairs and minimal sets.
. ?. g" `4 |( u4 j7 U# V/ R; o　　l        A minimal pair consists of two words that differ by only one sound in the same position.
7 P4 P& T5 F3 ]( a: {5 C/ q" C　　l        Minimal sets are more than two words that are distinguished by one segment in the same position.
2 J9 |, O0 V5 ?" R* K2 j　　u      The overwhelming majority of the consonants and vowels represented by the English phonetic alphabet are in contrastive distribution.
　　u      Some sounds can hardly be found in contrastive distribution in English. However, these sounds are distinctive in terms of phonetic features. Therefore, they are separate phonemes.
　　n        Complementary distribution – allophones
6 r9 w+ D  O+ f' T# w" g　　u      Sounds that are not found in the same position are said to be in complementary distribution.
* f# w, w% z/ z# E: @　　u      If segments are in complementary distribution and share a number of features, they are allophones of the same phoneme.
+ E! j0 h8 }% I　　n        Free variation
8 i4 p) V) n' B　　u      If segments appear in the same position but the mutual substitution does not result in change of meaning, they are said to be in free variation.
. d) P; L) e1 ~' m4 M8 f　　l        Distinctive and non-distinctive features
　　n        Features that distinguish meaning are called distinctive features, and features do not, non-distinctive features.
! d4 r- t& t) X6 C( _- P: Z　　n        Distinctive features in one language may be non-distinctive in another.
　　l        Phonological rules
7 e! K# P( w4 L6 `1 r* [　　n        Phonemes are abstract sound units stored in the mind, while allophones are the actual pronunciations in speech.
' ?3 H- J) |% `" T　　n        What phoneme is realized by what allophones in what specific context is another major question in phonology.
　　n        The regularities that what sounds vary in what ways in what context are generalized and stated in phonology as rules.
　　n        There are many phonological rules in English. Take the following ones as examples.
　　l        [+voiced +consonant] – [-voiced]/[-voiced +consonant]_
　　l        [-voiced +bilabial +stop] – unaspirated/[-voiced +alveolar +fricative]_

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　　l        Syllable structure
2 J" L2 e' p/ l) m: v- \　　n        A syllable is a phonological unit that is composed of one or more phonemes.
　　n        Every syllable has a nucleus, which is usually a vowel.
　　n        The nucleus may be preceded by one or more consonants called the onset and followed by one or more consonants called the coda.
　　l        Sequence of phonemes
- h3 h, v$ H) l( b- a  A% u* N2 T+ o　　n        Native speakers of any language intuitively know what sounds can be put together.
　　n        Some sequences are not possible in English. The impossible sequences are called systematic gaps.
8 E, S" m4 g& C& t! {　　n        Sequences that are possible but do not occur yet are called accidental gaps.
( q% J* T2 v" n# h　　n        When new words are coined, they may fill some accidental gaps but they will never fill systematic gaps.
　　l        Suprasegmental features
　　n        Features that are found over a segment or a sequence of two or more segments are called suprasegmental features.
　　n        These features are distinctive features.
, e! d5 j. c8 a　　n        Stress
6 P1 Y+ J0 r: F0 X4 `" d& G, U　　u      Stress is the perceived prominence of one or more syllabic elements over others in a word.
4 M; V  L+ p: g: b: j+ O　　u      Stress is a relative notion. Only words that are composed of two or more syllables have stress.
　　u      If a word has three or more syllables, there is a primary stress and a secondary stress.
& D" h) I% _. n3 p  J; M　　u      In some languages word stress is fixed, i.e. on a certain syllable. In English, word stress is unpredictable.
9 I7 Z* w0 d( w, F: {; ]  y4 b8 a　　n        Intonation
　　u      When we speak, we change the pitch of our voice to express ideas.
　　u      Intonation is the variation of pitch to distinguish utterance meaning.
1 H- c3 _3 \% l/ {) z% W  _8 v　　u      The same sentence uttered with different intonation may express different attitude of the speaker.
2 Z5 F- }3 n) A8 U3 v4 ?　　u      In English, there are three basic intonation patterns: fall, rise, fall-rise.
% B' ^: b) y+ b& X! h  j' `$ q/ y& }* X7 l　　n        Tone
1 q) L; M) x2 Q, k7 d　　u      Tone is the variation of pitch to distinguish words.
2 I6 S' i/ W8 g+ j/ Y8 ^　　u      The same sequence of segments can be different words if uttered with different tones.
! j6 b! v' H$ i, _1 l8 g/ h! O4 ]　　u      Chinese is a typical tone language.