英语语言学笔记纲要（3）

会计考友

　　Chapter 3 Phonology
　　l        What is phonology?
　　n        Phonology is the study of sound systems and patterns.
　　n        Phonology and phonetics are two studies different in perspectives, which are concerned with the study of speech sounds.
- P- b; f$ P: S& J2 W4 J- g　　n        Phonology focuses on three fundamental questions.
　　u      What sounds make up the list of sounds that can distinguish meaning in a particular language?
) ~9 f2 w* g6 }　　u      What sounds vary in what ways in what context?
　　u      What sounds can appear together in a sequence in a particular language?
6 y" G" X. V, c/ i" [- F* m9 l　　l        Phonemes and allophones
　　n        A phoneme is a distinctive, abstract sound unit with a distinctive feature.
　　n        The variants of a phoneme are termed allophones.
/ f+ R. ]3 n5 R　　n        We use allophones to realize phonemes.
　　l        Discovering phonemes
- a- O* {( O& R: Y1 L+ A! E　　n        Contrastive distribution – phonemes
0 k$ A: U/ M) w　　u      If sounds appear in the same environment, they are said to be in contrastive distribution.
　　u      Typical contrastive distribution of sounds is found in minimal pairs and minimal sets.
0 @: f& O6 c* t5 N2 e1 b6 v　　l        A minimal pair consists of two words that differ by only one sound in the same position.
　　l        Minimal sets are more than two words that are distinguished by one segment in the same position.
　　u      The overwhelming majority of the consonants and vowels represented by the English phonetic alphabet are in contrastive distribution.
; @5 u. m' E! v- x8 T& }8 T　　u      Some sounds can hardly be found in contrastive distribution in English. However, these sounds are distinctive in terms of phonetic features. Therefore, they are separate phonemes.
　　n        Complementary distribution – allophones
% S( l5 |! O- `4 O: n! t' N1 o　　u      Sounds that are not found in the same position are said to be in complementary distribution.
　　u      If segments are in complementary distribution and share a number of features, they are allophones of the same phoneme.
" @0 g7 j" |' _. g  z7 i4 H# I　　n        Free variation
　　u      If segments appear in the same position but the mutual substitution does not result in change of meaning, they are said to be in free variation.
* I5 o9 D  c: ?. v' g/ B　　l        Distinctive and non-distinctive features
' r. [$ V) B3 |( j　　n        Features that distinguish meaning are called distinctive features, and features do not, non-distinctive features.
　　n        Distinctive features in one language may be non-distinctive in another.
　　l        Phonological rules
　　n        Phonemes are abstract sound units stored in the mind, while allophones are the actual pronunciations in speech.
　　n        What phoneme is realized by what allophones in what specific context is another major question in phonology.
　　n        The regularities that what sounds vary in what ways in what context are generalized and stated in phonology as rules.
　　n        There are many phonological rules in English. Take the following ones as examples.
  K9 A2 p/ E, h* h  Q　　l        [+voiced +consonant] – [-voiced]/[-voiced +consonant]_
: |/ k2 h2 @3 y: e　　l        [-voiced +bilabial +stop] – unaspirated/[-voiced +alveolar +fricative]_

会计考友

　　l        Syllable structure
　　n        A syllable is a phonological unit that is composed of one or more phonemes.
　　n        Every syllable has a nucleus, which is usually a vowel.
　　n        The nucleus may be preceded by one or more consonants called the onset and followed by one or more consonants called the coda.
　　l        Sequence of phonemes
& G. ?: Z' Z6 d/ m6 z　　n        Native speakers of any language intuitively know what sounds can be put together.
　　n        Some sequences are not possible in English. The impossible sequences are called systematic gaps.
　　n        Sequences that are possible but do not occur yet are called accidental gaps.
4 q6 I$ g2 y' ]  o　　n        When new words are coined, they may fill some accidental gaps but they will never fill systematic gaps.
　　l        Suprasegmental features
　　n        Features that are found over a segment or a sequence of two or more segments are called suprasegmental features.
# g' B& Z7 @8 a6 r7 \  F　　n        These features are distinctive features.
　　n        Stress
9 ^$ _$ q. |: @9 }( L/ S5 P* D　　u      Stress is the perceived prominence of one or more syllabic elements over others in a word.
) K: p: h! S2 {. t) E' A0 q　　u      Stress is a relative notion. Only words that are composed of two or more syllables have stress.
, n( W9 b3 C+ t* Q: o5 k- ^　　u      If a word has three or more syllables, there is a primary stress and a secondary stress.
　　u      In some languages word stress is fixed, i.e. on a certain syllable. In English, word stress is unpredictable.
　　n        Intonation
- I) @$ g, G( }3 F# R  C- p. f　　u      When we speak, we change the pitch of our voice to express ideas.
, c) @# M' Y! `' R0 s/ e( b. G　　u      Intonation is the variation of pitch to distinguish utterance meaning.
　　u      The same sentence uttered with different intonation may express different attitude of the speaker.
　　u      In English, there are three basic intonation patterns: fall, rise, fall-rise.
* e0 {: |+ M$ ]8 N* L$ Q$ v　　n        Tone
　　u      Tone is the variation of pitch to distinguish words.
! ]  G7 ?5 H3 \　　u      The same sequence of segments can be different words if uttered with different tones.
　　u      Chinese is a typical tone language.