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War and Conflict
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# a+ ~. {- ?+ Z' J" T! f    The question of whether war is inevitable is one which has concerned many of the world¬ðs great writers. Before considering this question, it will be useful to introduce some related concepts. Conflict, defined as opposition among social entities directed against one another, is distinguished from competition, defined as opposition among social entities independently striving for something which is in inadequate supply. Competitors may not be aware of one another, while the parties to a conflict are. Conflict and competition are both categories of opposition, which has been defined as a process by which social entities function is the disservice of one another.
" Q3 L# r! D$ g$ Q    Opposition is thus contrasted with cooperation, the process by which social entities function in the service of one another. Theses definitions are necessary because it is important to emphasize that competition between individuals or groups in inevitable in a world of limited resources, but conflict is not. Conflict, nevertheless, is very likely to occur, and is probably an essential and desirable element of human societies.
& R" J7 R$ k# u" W    Many authors have argued for the inevitability of war from the premise that in the struggle for existence among animal species, only the fittest survive. In general, however, this struggle in nature is competition, not conflict. Social animals, such as monkeys and cattle, fight to win or maintain leadership of the group. The struggle for existence occurs not in such fights, but in the competition for limited feeding areas and for occupancy of areas free from meatª²eating animals. Those who fail in this competition starve to death or become victims to other species. This struggle for existence does not resemble human war, but rather the competition of individuals for jobs, markets, and materials. The essence of the struggle is the competition for the necessities of life that are insufficient to satisfy all.
  A% ^5 c" ]8 d; s/ a    Among nations there is competition in developing resources, trades, skills, and a satisfactory way of life. The successful nations grow and prosper; the unsuccessful decline. While it is true that this competition may induce efforts to expand territory at the expense of others, and thus lead to conflict, it cannot be said that warª²like conflict among nations is inevitable, although competition is.
  
31 In the first paragraph, the author gives the definitions of some terms in order to .
( q# X! J$ i" F$ e) ~  A  argue for the similarities between animal societies and human societies
% `0 T9 Y3 ?' K  B  smooth out the conflicts in human societies
  C  distinguish between two kinds of opposition
  D  summarize the characteristic features of opposition and cooperation
' V: S2 X1 |% i# I; ]32 According to the author, competition differs from conflict in that .
  A  it results in war in most cases
1 z2 H; V2 ~, ^' q  B  it induces efforts to expand territory
  C  it is a kind of opposition among social entities
  D  it is essentially a struggle for existence
33 The phrase ¡°function in the disservice of one another¡± (Para. 1) most probably means .
  A  betray each other  
  B  harm one another
, U) {% |' g8 r! X! G: Q  C  help to collaborate with each other
( w, P2 d3 y- O, X( ]6 r" R  D  benefit one another
34 The author indicates in the passage that conflict .
  a+ R1 q2 y9 t& @4 c* J+ k  A  is an inevitable struggle resulting from competition
  
  
  B  reflects the struggle among social animals
  C  is an opposition among individual social entities
% Q8 U7 @* |) y  D  can be avoided
35 The passage is probably intended to answer the question ¡°¡±.
  A  Is war inevitable?
  |& ~# `" r- N. ^* `  B  Why is there conflict and competition?
  C  Is conflict desirable?
) ~- C! U0 n% S( l: I% V4 O  D  Can competition lead to conflict?
# z% y& a! }8 X* f31.C32.D33.B34.D35.A