专八英语语言学笔记纲要（1）

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　　Linguistics
　　Chapter 1 Introduction: Language and Linguistics
　　l        What is language?
　　n        Different definitions of language
　　u      Language is a system whose parts can and must be considered in their synchronic solidarity. (de Saussure, 1916)
　　u      [Language is] a set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements. (Chomsky, 1957)
　　u      Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols.
$ U5 k# q( f, T/ i5 _7 i　　n        Each of the definitions above has pointed out some aspects of the essence of language, but all of them have left out something. We must see the multi-faceted nature of language.
+ N1 _6 g& o6 k, ]5 O1 m7 v　　n        As is agreed by linguists in broad terms, language can be defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.
　　l        Features of human language
. J2 x0 C( [7 G1 o8 ^& J$ U# S; Q　　n        Creativity
' C, P! F- f9 N+ T1 n. a1 y" f　　u      Language provides opportunities for sending messages that have never been sent before and for understanding brand new messages.
% n7 S9 ?3 ^, E! W% I　　u      The grammar rules and the words are finite, but the sentences are infinite. Every speaker uses language creatively.
! k& r1 ?% y$ f8 F　　n        Duality
　　u      Language contains two subsystems, one of sounds and the other of meanings.
& @( K, x  M2 Z! a0 W　　u      Certain sounds or sequences of sounds stand for certain meanings.
　　u      Certain meanings are conveyed by certain speech sounds or sequences of speech sounds.
2 f! o7 g9 s, l　　n        Arbitrariness
　　u      The relationship between the two subsystems of language is arbitrary.
6 q+ U+ \; V1 q8 j% p0 [　　u      There is no logical connection between sound and meaning.
% z# X- u" M& y. n' ^5 _8 B! x! P　　n        Displacement
　　u      There is no limit in time or space for language.
# l: H8 U0 Y0 [+ w4 f, q! t7 W0 E　　u      Language can be used to refer to things real or imagined, past, present or future.
　　n        Cultural transmission
; k- A* c$ M+ j6 b9 M) Y* v　　u      Culture cannot be genetically transmitted. Instead, it must be learned.
. a3 V  I1 a+ T% w　　u      Language is a way of transmitting culture.
　　n        Interchangeability
9 c: z0 u+ f+ M! |　　u      All members of a speech community can send and receive messages.
　　n        Reflexivity
! c" a, {- }& Z$ _& J: \　　u      Human languages can be used to describe themselves.
5 f9 M) G2 w0 p7 j　　u      The language used to talk about language is called meta-language.
　　l        Functions of language – three meta-functions
& s3 w1 q; p9 B9 k6 u$ r1 R3 C; D　　n        The ideational function
　　u      To identify things, to think, or to record information.
. Q& x$ R$ j+ h0 ~$ m, c　　n        The interpersonal function
0 ~, N9 Q. O2 {+ e　　u      To get along in a community.
4 N2 l4 F7 o  ]/ |　　n        The textual function
+ P% p1 U& ?$ u0 N" I; p6 E7 \　　u      To form a text.
5 @" q% F3 G/ |　　l        Types of language
　　n        Genetic classification
+ A7 J! _$ r8 W　　n        Typological classification
  z) f4 L: @8 v/ ]　　u      Analytic language – no inflections or formal changes, grammatical relationships are shown through word order, such as Chinese and Vietnamese

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　　u      Synthetic language – grammatical relationships are expressed by changing the internal structure of the words, typically by changing the inflectional endings, such as English and German
　　u      Agglutinating language – words are built out of a long sequence of units, with each unit expressing a particular grammatical meaning, such as Japanese and Turkish